Throughout this application, various publications are referenced. The disclosures of these publications are hereby incorporated by reference into this application to describe more fully the art to which this invention pertains.
Progression through the cell cycle is marked by a series of irreversible transitions that separate discrete tasks necessary for faithful cell duplication. These transitions are negatively regulated by signals that constrain the cell cycle until specific conditions are fulfilled. Entry into mitosis, for example, is inhibited by incompletely replicated DNA or DNA damage (Weiner and Hartwell, 1988). Another feedback pathway delays the transition from M to G1 if the mitotic spindle is defective (Hoyt et al. (1991); Li & Murray (1991). These restrictions on cell cycle progression are essential for preserving the fidelity of the genetic information during cell division (HArtwell & WEinert (1989)). The transition from G1 to S phase, on the other hand, coordinates cell proliferation with environmental cues, after which the checks on cell cycle progression tend to be cell autonomous (Hartwell et al. (1974); Pardee (1974); Pardee (1989)). Among the extracellular influences that restrict cell cycle progression during G1 are proteins that inhibit cell proliferation, growth factor or amino acid depletion, and cell-cell contact. Disruption of these signaling pathways uncouples cellular responses from environmental controls and may lead to unrestrained cell proliferation.
Transitions between phases of the cell cycle are catalyzed by a family of cyclin-dependent kineses (Cdks) (Nurse (1990); Hartwell (1991)). In some organisms the physiological signals controlling the G2 to M transition target a series of steps that activate the mitotic Cdk, Cdc2. Cdc2 activation is positively regulated by phosphorylation on threonine-161 (Booher & Beach (1986); Krek & Nigg (1991); Gould K. et al. (1991) EMBO J. 10:3297-3309; Solomon et al. (1990); Solomon et al. (1992)) and negatively by phosphorylation on tyrosine-15 (Gould K. & Nurse P. (1989) Nature 342:39-45). Incomplete DNA replication delays dephosphorylation of tyr-15 (Dasso M. & Newport J. (1990) Cell 61:811-823; Smythe & Newport (1992)), and mutations in Cdc2 that convert tyr-15 to a nonphosphorylatable residue are lethal and cause a premature mitosis (Gould & Nurse (1989) supra). Similarly, either over expression of the tyr-15 phosphatase, Cdc25 (Enoch T. & Nurse P. (1990) Cell 60:665-673; Kumagai & Dunphy (1991)), or loss of the tyr-15 kinases (Ludgren et al. (1991)) bypass the requirement that DNA replication be completed before mitosis begins. Additional levels of control are probably required to fully explain the block to mitosis caused by ongoing DNA replication (Sorger & Murray (1992); Heald et al. (1993); Stueland et al. (1993)). There is also evidence that cell cycle arrest induced by DNA damage may be related to inactivation of Cdc2 (Rowley et al. (1992); Walworth et al. (1993)), but the role of tyrosine phosphorylation in this context has been questioned (Barbel & Carr (1993)).
There is some evidence, particularly in yeast, that signals inhibiting the G1 to S phase transition block Cdk activation. The mating pheromone alpha factor arrests the S. cerevisiae cell cycle in G1 Reid & Hartwell (1977)), and this correlates with a decrease in CDC28 kinase activity and a decline in the abundance of active complexes containing G1 cyclins and CDC28 (Wittenberg et al. (1990)). The FAR1 protein binds to G1 cyclin-CDC28 complexes in cells treated with alpha factor, and this is probably necessary for cell cycle arrest (Chang F. & Herskowitz I. (1990) Cell 63:999-1011; Peter et al. (1993)). Other inhibitors of CDC28 kinase activity have been identified, but their relationship to physiological signals that control cell cycle progression is not known (Mendenhall (1993); Dunphy W. & Newport J. (1989) Cell 58:181-191).
Mammalian cells, like yeast, require cyclin-dependent kineses for progression through G1 and entry into S phase (D'Urso G. et al. (1990) Science 250:786-791; Blow J. J. & Nurse P. (1990) Cell 62:855-862; Furukawa et al. (1990); Fang F. & Newport J. (1991) Cell 66:731-742; Pagano et al. (1993); Tsai et al. (1993)). Both D and E-type cyclins are rate limiting for the G1 to S transition and both reduce, but do not eliminate, the cell's requirement for mitogenic growth factors (Ohtsubo & Roberts (1993); Quelle et al. (1993)). There is little information, however, concerning the manner by which these cyclins and Cdks are negatively regulated by extracellular signals that inhibit cell proliferation.
It has been studied how two signals that block the cell cycle in G1, cell-cell contact and TGF-.beta., affect the activity of a G1 cyclin-dependent kinase, Cdk2 (Paris et al. (1990); Elledge S. & Spottswood M. (1991) EMBO J. 10:2653-2659; Koff et al. (1991); Tsai et al. (1991); Elledge S. et al. (1992) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:2907-2911; Rosenblatt et al. (1992)). The cell cycle of MvlLu mink epithelial cells can be arrested in G1 by growth to high density. These contact inhibited cells express both cyclin E and Cdk2, but cyclin E-associated kinase activity is not present (Koff et al. (1993). Entry into S phase can also be prevented if MvlLu cells are released from contact inhibition in the presence of TGF-.beta., and this correlates with a block to phosphorylation of the Retinoblastoma (Rb) protein (Laiho et al. (1990)). Both Cdk2 and Cdk4 have been implicated as Rb kinases (Matsushime et al. (1992); Hinds et al. (1993); Kato et al. (1993); Ewen M. et al. (1993a) Cell 73:487-497; Dowdy S. et al. (1993) Cell 73:499-511), suggesting that TGF-.beta. induced cell cycle arrest may involve inhibition of Cdks during G1 (Howe et al. (1991)). Consistent with this, cells arrested in late G1 by TGF-.beta., like contact inhibited cells, express both cyclin E and Cdk2 but do not contain catalytically active cyclin E-Cdk2 complexes (Koffet al. (1993)). Cdk4 synthesis is also repressed by TGF-.beta.. The inactivity of Cdk2 together with the absence of Cdk4 may explain the block to Rb phosphorylation in these cells.
It is shown herein that contact inhibited and TGF-.beta.treated cells, but not proliferating cells, contain a titratable excess of a 27 kD protein that binds to the cyclin E-Cdk2 complex and prevents its activation. The inhibitory activity of p27 can be competed by the cyclin D2-Cdk4 complex, suggesting that p27 and cyclin D2-Cdk4 may function within a pathway that transmits growth inhibitory signals to Cdk2.
The subject invention provides an isolated 27 kD protein capable of binding to and inhibiting the activation of a cyclin E-Cdk2 complex. The subject invention further provides related recombinant nucleic acid molecules, host vector systems, and methods for making same. Finally, the subject invention provides methods of identifying agents and using agents which act on or mimic p27 function, so as to exploit the regulatory role of p27 in cell proliferation.